At this point, wildland/WUI conflagrations are nothing new to the U.S. landscape, so the fact that these fires are posing a larger risk to lives and property should come as no surprise. Fortunately, if your department is just starting to develop comprehensive WUI response plans, it can benefit from years of lessons learned, as well as firefighting advances that have come about due to ever-improving technology and sweat equity. In this article, I’ll discuss some of the best practices for WUI firefighting that fire departments have developed to respond to the ever-growing and changing WUI fire problem.
What Is the WUI?
What exactly constitutes the WUI has been (and continues to be) a point of debate. The National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG) defines the WUI as “the line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meet or intermingle with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels.” The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) defines the WUI as the “locations in which the [authority having jurisdiction] determines that topographical features, vegetation fuel types, local weather conditions, and prevailing winds result in the potential for ignition of the structures within the area from flames and firebrands of a wildland fire.” Recent research suggests that as much as 10%–or more than 175 million acres–of the United States is classified as WUI land by these definitions.
For the purposes of grant applications, specific definitions have been developed to help departments distinguish between population distributions. One example is the difference between rural, suburban and urban response areas when applying for Assistance to Firefighter Grants. For practical purposes, however, the distinguishing factors are certainly not that clear or well defined; some piece of the WUI exists in all regions, states, cities, towns and counties. Even the emerging concept of “open space islands” has created areas within urban centers that have the same properties and response concerns as traditionally identified WUI areas.
Significant Stats
Although a universally accepted definition of the WUI doesn’t yet exist, universal acceptance of the significance of WUI fires does. According to the NFPA, 14%of the large-loss fires (those that caused more than $10 million in damages) during 2011 were wildland fires. Of the almost 1.4 million fires that U.S. fire departments reported in 2011, 49% were classified as “outside or other”; these 686,000 outside fires equates to one fire every 46 seconds. The total loss of these fires was estimated at $616 million, with an unfortunate 65 civilian fire deaths.
The increasing significance of WUI fires is made further obvious when looking at broader statistics: The biggest and most destructive fires in New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado and Texas history have occurred in the past two years. On average, fires since 2000 have burned twice the number of acres that they burned in the 1990s. This may be due, in part, to a general population shift in which more people are moving into rural settings than ever before.
The Cohesive Strategy
Over the past decade, different levels of government have struggled to identify their roles and responsibilities within the WUI. Since local fire departments are often tasked with all-hazard response, they can’t focus on wildland and WUI fire protection exclusively. Where clear boundaries exist, local departments often count on state and federal resources to provide response into less populated wilderness areas. Unfortunately, clear boundaries are not the norm.
In the past two decades, issues such as increased property loss, increased cost of management, increased threat to communities and more extreme fire behavior have underlined the need for collaboration for efficiency, economy and expertise. At the same time, policies leading to a lack of proper fuel management (such as aggressive firefighting), the growing WUI, decreasing budgets, and differences in agencies’ core missions have complicated WUI response. In short, WUI/wildland fire doesn’t recognize jurisdictional boundaries, though people often do.
A 2009 Congressional mandate resulted in the National Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy. The Wildland Fire Leadership Council defines the strategy as “a collaborative process with active involvement of all levels of government and non-governmental organizations, as well as the public, to seek national, all-lands solutions to wildland fire management issues.” The Cohesive Strategy identified three categories within which any response agency may focus their efforts to maximize their community’s protection from WUI/wildland fires: restoring and maintaining resilient landscapes, creating fire-adapted communities and responding to wildfires.
Preplanning Strategy
As a result of the Cohesive Strategy, many departments not only began to focus on the noted three categories, but they also started to pay more attention to preplanning. When performing this task, departments/agencies should identify areas that might contribute to increased community risk. Preplan evacuation routes, and if possible, rehearse evacuation procedures. Identify at-risk and special-needs populations, so that special care can be given to them if evacuations are needed. Local departments should seek to educate and engage their community leaders and residents whenever possible.
In all WUI areas, identify usable water sources, ensure that street signs and street addresses are well marked and visible, and ensure that all roads have adequate access for fire apparatus.
FACs/Home Ignition
The USFA suggests that creating a fire-adapted community (FAC) can reduce the loss of life and property by promoting community-wide preparation. Characteristics of a FAC include fire suppression capabilities that meet most community needs, codes that encourage ignition resistance, fuel treatments where appropriate and a community wildfire protection plan (CWPP).
Important: Research and anecdotal evidence have shown that the majority of ignitions within a WUI fire are caused by firebrands (embers) that find their way to receptive parts of a structure, such as exposed decks and wood shingle roofs. Since these firebrands can be carried for a mile or more, agencies should consider a buffer zone when targeting areas for risk reduction, which might include areas that are located more than a mile from any developed area, and inside urban areas that are as far as one mile away from vegetation.
U.S. Forest Service (USFS) researchers have studied the concept of the “home ignition zone”–or the area within 100 to 200 feet of a structure–and they’ve found that addressing the ignitability within the home ignition zone by reducing receptive fuels and treating building materials has the greatest effect on preventing structure ignitions. There are a number of ways that fire departments can encourage or mandate fire resistance within the home ignition zone: building and development codes; programs that provide guidance and/or labor to remove hazardous fuels; and incentives to homeowners who comply with recommendations. The IAFC’s Ready, Set, Go! Program, Firewise and other similar programs can help guide fire departments, residents and communities through this process. Note: Throughout all of this, federal, state, tribal and local cooperation and coordination is essential if there is shared jurisdiction.
WUI Fire Response/Suppression
Despite best efforts by local, state and national agencies to prevent WUI fires, effective fire suppression remains the principal method for preventing WUI fires from becoming major disasters. Four main topics deserve attention when discussing response/suppression efforts:
- Training and qualifications
- Equipment standards
- Response essentials
- Safety in the WUI
Training & Qualifications
When different agencies respond to large events, it’s often unclear what qualifications should apply. Generally speaking, local qualifications are the only ones that apply when responding locally, but WUI fires often require responders to work outside their jurisdiction and/or collaborate with responders from other agencies with different standards. The issuing of Red Cards to all responders that meet nationally agreed-upon standards has ensured consistency when firefighters respond to WUI fires out of their normal response areas. Most non-federal resources follow the guidelines established by the NWCG; USFS employees follow a similar set of guidelines. When in question, fire departments should follow the standards for training, position qualification and mobilization recommended by the IAFC.
At a minimum, the basic level of wildland firefighting training consists of four courses: Introduction to Wildland Firefighting (S-130), Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior (S-190), Introduction to ICS (I-100) and Human Factors in the Wildland Fire Service (L-180). Existing training staff can usually qualify as instructors for these courses. In other cases, state forestry agencies can be contacted to provide instructors and classes. In addition, a database is kept for many of the wildland courses taught across the nation, and online courses are offered through the NWCG website.
Equivalent trainings are often completed by structural firefighters. The Skills Crosswalk was created as an alternative training program for those who come from traditionally structural departments. (Note: A similar program called Recognition for Prior Learning has been supported by the IAFC for many years, but decreasing partner funding has stalled the program indefinitely.)
Equipment Standards
Equipment and mobilization standards are also important when responding to fires in the WUI. In the absence of equipment specifically designed for use in the WUI, all apparatus should be equipped with a minimum complement of hand tools, such as shovels and Pulaskis. Small-diameter (3/4″—1″) cotton jacket hose and the associated appliances (adapters, wyes, nozzles) should be placed on all fire apparatus to improve flexibility while operating in the WUI. NFPA 1906: Standard for Wildland Fire Apparatus can help with the design of proper vehicles.
Fire departments should also ensure that all responders are properly equipped for response into the WUI. At a minimum, every responder should be equipped with a helmet, eye protection, a fire-resistant shirt and pants, leather boots and gloves, and a fire shelter. Basic web gear that can hold a fire shelter and a couple of quarts of water is just as effective as the more expensive fireline backpacks for most uses. NFPA 1977: Standard on Protective Clothing and Equipment for Wildland Firefighting can be used as a guide to make sure the minimum suggestions are met. Communication interoperability should also be ensured with surrounding resources and tested regularly.
Response Essentials
In every fire management activity, the priorities should be the same: firefighter and public safety, incident stabilization, and property and resource conservation. Safe and aggressive initial attack is the best way to keep WUI fires small, improve safety and keep costs down. To do this, incident command must be ensured during all responses, and resources must be coordinated appropriately.
Mutual- and automatic-aid agreements should be maintained between responders with shared jurisdictions. Agencies should support one another with initial attack and fire response, but engage in planning that will take into account interdependence and statutory responsibilities among jurisdictions. When designing mutual-aid agreements, agencies should define responsibilities for cost-sharing of suppression expenditures.
Safety
Ultimately, sound risk management should be the foundation for all fire management activities. To state the obvious, firefighter safety must always be considered before any operational activities are performed. Preplanning can help promote safety by identifying specific hazards in the WUI such as utilities, animals, septic tanks and hazardous materials.
Firefighters should stay well hydrated before and throughout operations, and should get good rest when possible. Proper protective clothing should always be worn, while structural firefighting gear should be avoided in the WUI environment unless firefighters are actively suppressing a structure or other non-wildland fire. Wildland firefighters should also know the 10 Fire Orders and 18 Watch-Out Situations.
After the Fire
When returning to the scene of a WUI fire, firefighters should take notice of unusual hazards, such as downed power lines, loose rocks and snags. Inspect all bridges before you drive over them and all structures before you enter them. Once you’ve scouted the area for hazards and can ensure that safety has been addressed, returning the residents and evacuees as soon as possible will help promote recovery.
Fire crews and other responding agencies should always conduct after-action reviews. Fire departments should identify what went well, what can be improved upon, and what needs to change.
A Final Note
As you can see, a lot of how we respond to WUI fires today has been modified by lessons learned from past incidents. We, as public service professionals, should vow to never let a learning opportunity go to waste. Strategies for responding to WUI fires are ripe for improvement, no matter how professional the response might be.
Sidebar 1: Resources
Fire department and community preparedness:
IAFC’s Ready, Set, Go! Program: http://wildlandfirersg.org/
Operational Considerations for Addressing Outdoor Fires: www.iafc.org/files/OperaitonalConsiderationOutdoorFire.pdf
NFPA’s Fire Loss in the United States 2011: http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files/pdf/os.fireloss.pdf
USFA’s Your Role in Fire-Adapted Communities:
www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/publications/fire_adapted_communities.pdf
Training and qualifications:
NWCG Wildland Fire Qualification System: www.nwcg.gov/pms/docs/docs.htm
National Wildland Fire Training Database: www.nationalfiretraining.net
Skills Crosswalk: www.usfa.fema.gov/downloads/pdf/wildland_training_crosswalk.pdf
10 Fire Orders and 18 Watch-Out Situations: www.fs.fed.us/fire/safety/10_18/10_18.html
Sidebar 2: LCES Defined
To ensure firefighter safety in the WUI, firefighters must adhere to LCES:
- Lookout: Always position someone who isn’t dedicated to operational assignments in a location where they can monitor the environment and surroundings.
- Communications: Make sure radio or face-to-face communications are always occurring.
- Escape routes: Whether in an apparatus or on foot, always make sure you have a way to retreat to a safe location should the incident grow and/or become threatening.
- Safety zones: If you must retreat, make sure you can reposition in an area that’s large enough and void of ignitable substances, so that you would be safe if the fire erupted.
